NTT Hi-Tech Institute
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
NTT Hi-Tech Institute
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Department of Science and Technology
Kon Tum Province, Vietnam
Department of Science and Technology
Kon Tum Province, Vietnam
NTT Hi-Tech Institute
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology
Ha Noi City, Vietnam
Introduction. Codonopsis javanica L. root is a gingsen-like medicinal material with valuable bioactive compounds and alkaloids in its composition. However, the diversification of commercial products from Codonopsis javanica root extract is limited and poorly represented on the market. This study presents a new production process of an instant tea product from Codonopsis javanica root extract, which involved spray drying with maltodextrin as a drying additive. Study objects and methods. The research featured different process parameters including a drying additive concentration, a drying temperature, and a feed flow rate. Moisture content and drying yield were selected as the main outcomes. Results and discussion. In general, the improved drying yield was associated with an increased drying additive concentration, a lower drying temperature, and a higher feed flow rate. The best drying yield (78.35%) was obtained at the drying additive concentration of 30% (w/w), the drying temperature of 140°C, and the feed flow rate of 300 mL/h. The total saponin content in the product was 0.29% (w/w), and the ABTS free radical scavenging ability reached 59.48 μgAA/g. The obtained powder was spherical and exhibited fairly uniform particle morphology with shriveled and concave outer surface. Conclusion. The research results justified the use of Codonopsis javanica as an ingredient in beverage industry and suggested maltodextrin as an appropriate substrate for spray-drying natural extracts.
Codonopsis javanica, root extract, instant tea, spray drying, maltodextrin, process optimization, antioxidant activity, saponin
INTRODUCTION
Codonopsis javanica L., known in Vietnamese as
“Dangsam”, is a member of the Campanulaceae family.
It grows in the shade of trees and produces bell-shaped
flowers [1–3]. C. javanica is a popular traditional herbal
medicine in China. In Vietnam, it can be found in 14
mountainous Northern provinces, particularly in Lang
Son, Cao Bang, Ha Giang, Lao Cai, and Son La, at the
height of 500–1600 m above the sea level. It also grows
in the highland areas of Southern provinces, including
Quang Nam, Lam Dong, and Kon Tum, at an altitude
of 1500 m [4, 5]. The habitats include pastureland,
woodland edge in mountainous regions, hill slopes, and
upland areas [6].
C. javanica contains valuable bioactive compounds
and exhibits numerous pharmaceutical properties.
Its root is known to contain glucose, essential oil,
fatty substances, and alkaloids [7]. Past studies
that employed nuclear magnetic resonance also
registered codotubulosins A and B, adenosine and
5-(hydroxymethyl) furfural in quaternary ammonium
alkaloids in the C. javanica roots [8]. Codonopsis roots
contain such substances as polysaccharides, saponins,
alkaloids, and phytosteroids, which significantly
contribute to the pharmacological efficacy of the plant
material [9, 10].
Extracts of C. Javanica or other species of
codonopsis were used to treat diabetes and other
illnesses [11–13]. They also possess strong antifatigue,
antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumor, and immuneboosting
properties [14–17]. In in vitro experiments,
C. javanica extract showed mutagenic, antimutagenic,
anticancer, and antitumor properties against various
human cell lines [18]. Polysaccharides from C. javanica
were demonstrated to protect mice with cerebral
ischemia-reperfusion injury [19]. Another experiment
also proved the antilarval properties of C. javanica
aqueous extract against Aedes albopictus pupae, a vector
of Dengue fever [20].
In Vietnamese traditional medicine, C. javanica root
is used to treat a number of disorders related to digestive
and respiratory system [7]. Similar uses of C. javanica
root were also reported in Chinese traditional medicine,
the most popular preparation method being decoction
or tea brewing [21]. As a result of the recent interest
in health beneficial natural ingredients, plant extracts
with functional properties are often included in instant
tea formulations [22]. Instant tea formulation has the
advantage of favorable aroma, stimulating effect, and
convenience. To avoid degradation, the final moisture
content of instant tea powder samples is approximately
3–5% [23].
The research objective was to investigate the
parameters of instant tea production from C. javanica
root extracts by spray drying. The parameters under
analysis included moisture, drying yield, total saponin
content, and antioxidant activity.
STUDY OBJECTS AND METHODS
Condonopsis javanica L. roots were purchased from
the local farmers in the province of Kon Tum, Vietnam.
They were harvested during the winter season at the
age of two years. Then the roots were cut into smaller
pieces, and their moisture content was reduced from
80.16% to 8.17% in a drying oven (Memmert UN110,
Germany). The dried roots were mechanically powdered.
Afterwards, 60% ethanol by volume was added to the
powder in the amount of 40 mL per 1 g. The suspension
was then subjected to hydrodistillation for 4 h at 60°C.
Water was removed with a rotary evaporator until
the weight of the solid in the extract was 40.3%. We
obtained 65.75 g of dried extract from 100 g of input root
powder. After multiple runs, the accumulated extract
was stored in a cooler for spray drying.
To obtain instant tea, a drying additive
(maltodextrin) was completely dissolved in 500 mL of
distilled water and left at room temperature overnight.
The solution was then mixed with the prepared
C. javanica root extract at an appropriate ratio and
then with Tween 80. The amount of the added Tween
80 equaled 5% of the weight of the prepared C. javanica
root extract. After that, the mix was stirred at 6000 rpm
for 20 min in a rotor-stator blender to allow emulsion
formation. About 800 mL of the mix was then put into
a lab-scale spray dryer (Pilotech YC-015 Mini Spray
Dryer). The first single-factor investigation involved the
effect of drying additive concentration on the properties
of the product. The main spray drying parameters
were the following: drying temperature = 140°C, feed
rate = 120 mL/h. The dry powder collected was
placed in the airtight glass bottle at 25°C for further
examination.
The moisture content of the product was determined
using the AOAC International (AOAC, 2007) method.
The sample was dried in an oven at 105°C till constant
weight. The dried sample was then measured for weight
loss (%) and the moisture content (%) [24].
To determine drying yield, we used the following
formula [25]:
where m1 is the weight of the feed solution (g), m2 is
the weight of the powder obtained by spray drying, x is
solids, %, and y is the moisture content of the obtained
powder product.
ABTS scavenging activity was determined using
the method previously described by Pham et al. and
Mradu et al. [26, 27]. To prepare the stock solution,
10 mL of 7.4 mM ABTS solution was dropped to
10 mL of 2.6 mM K2S2O8 and kept at room temperature
without exposure to light for 15 h for subsequent use.
One milliliter of stock solution was diluted with 60 mL
of methanol to get an absorbance value of 1.1 ± 0.02 at
734 nm to produce the working solution. Then 0.5 mL of
the extract was added to 1.5 mL of the working solution
and kept in darkness for 30 min at room temperature.
A UV-VIS spectrophotometer recorded the absorbance
of the mix at 734 nm. Ascorbic acid was used as a
standard, and the results were expressed as μg ascorbic
acid equivalents per gram of dried sample (μgAA/g).
To determine saponin content, 1 g of dried sample
was finely powdered and solubilized in 20 mL of
20% isopropanol. The mixture was then heated in
a microwave at 86°C for 20 min. The obtained mix
was then filtered using Whatman paper for further
quantitative purpose.
The saponin content was assessed
spectrophotometrically as reported by Jennifer et al.,
with minor modifications [28]. Briefly, 3.5 mL of the
Liebermann ‒ Burchards (LB) reagent, consisting of a
1:5 mix of acetic acid and sulfuric acid, was added to
1 mL of sample solution. If saponins were present, the
sample solution fluoresced with yellow. The saponin
387
Nhan N.P.T. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2020, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. Х–Х
content in the solution was then quantified by measuring
its absorbance at 580 nm. The following calibration
curve describes the relationship between absorbance and
saponin concentration:
Absorbance (mg/mL) = 4.5725 × Concentration of
saponins (mg/mL) + 0.0164.
Total saponins were calculated on the fresh weight
basis.
The morphology of the spray-dried powder
was studied by a scanning electron microscope
(JSM 6300 SEM). The samples were mounted directly
on aluminum SEM stubs in carbon conductive tape and
covered by gold sputtering with a thin layer of gold.
Each measurement was carried out in triplicate.
Statgraphic statistics software was used to evaluate
the statistical data (Statpoint Technologies, version 20,
Inc., Warrenton, VA, USA). The variance analysis
(ANOVA) and the least significant difference (LSD)
were calculated to compare the mean value of the film
properties with P = 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
We determined the moisture and texture of powdered
tea from Condopopsis javanica L. root extract obtained
at various maltodextrin concentrations (Table 1). High
concentrations seemed to result in the product with
lower moisture and minor agglomerate formation.
Fig. 1 shows the dependence of drying yield on
maltodextrin concentration. These impacts on drying
yield were statistically significant (P < 0.05), as
displayed by the one-way ANOVA analysis. Further
LSD multiple range tests for drying yield values
pointed out differences among the yields obtained
at five distinct concentrations (15, 20, 25, 30, 35%).
The highest drying yield (75.68%) was attained at
the 30% concentration of maltodextrin. Generally,
DY was directly proportional to the concentration that
rose from 15% to 30%. This can be explained by the
effect of exterior-active carbohydrates of maltodextrin,
which attach with volatile compounds in the
extracts [29]. As a result, higher concentrations
of drying additives could support the remaining
volatiles and simultaneously increase spray drying
yield. As noted by Nunes and Mercadante, the high
concentration of the drying additive (35% w/w) resulted
in a caramelization reaction that produced furanones,
furans, pyrones, and carbocyclic, thus reducing drying
yield [30]. Due to the economical characteristic of
maltodextrin, we used 30% of maltodextrin in the
subsequent tests.
Table 2 shows the texture and moisture of the
microcapsules obtained at different drying temperatures.
Since an elevated temperature led to products with
lower moisture content, we examined an effect of
drying temperature on drying yield (Fig. 2). The results
were statistically significant (P < 0.05), as displayed by
Table 1 Moisture and texture of C. javanica instant tea
at various maltodextrin concentrations
Maltodextrin
concentration, %
Texture Moisture, %
15 9.83 ± 0.087
20 9.27 ± 0.076
25 8.38 ± 0.066
30 7.09 ± 0.09
35 6.77 ± 0.05
Figure 1 Drying yield of instant tea from C. javanica root
extract at different maltodextrin concentrations
388
Nhan N.P.T. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2020, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. Х–Х
Table 2 Moisture and texture of instant tea from C. javanica
root extract at different drying temperatures
Drying temperature, °C Texture Moisture, %
140 6.77 ± 0.05
160 6.6 ± 0.075
180 6.01 ± 0.09
200 5.013 ± 0.1
Figure 2 Drying yield of instant tea from C. javanica root
extract at different drying temperatures
Table 3 Moisture and texture of instant tea from C. javanica
root extract at different feed flow rates
Feed flow rate, mL/h Texture Moisture, %
120 6.77 ± 0.05
180 7.05 ± 0.076
240 8.23 ± 0.112
300 8.71 ± 0.13
Figure 3. Drying yield of instant tea from
C. javanica root extract at different feed flow rates
the one-way ANOVA analysis. Further LSD multiple
range tests for drying yield pointed out well-defined
differences among the yields obtained at different
temperatures (140, 160, 180, 200°C). The greatest
drying yield (75.68%) was achieved at 140°C. As the
temperature rose from 140 to 200°C, drying yield
decreased.
As previously mentioned, high inlet/outlet
temperature (140°C) led to a caramelization reaction,
thus decreasing drying yield [29]. Jafari et al.
demonstrated that a relatively high inlet air temperature
(160–220°C) may cause thermal damage to a dry
substance, leading to a rapid development of semipermeable
membrane on the droplet surface [31]. These
results are similar to the studies conducted by Fernandes
et al. and Cortés-Camargo et al. [32, 33]. Considering
the drying yield results, we decided to use the drying
temperature of 140°C in out further experiments.
389
Nhan N.P.T. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2020, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. Х–Х
Table 3 demonstrates the moisture and texture of the
instant tea at different feed flow rates. An increased feed
flow rate improved the moisture in the obtained product.
We then examined these differences of feed flow rate
with respect to drying yields, as shown in Fig. 3. These
impacts on drying yield were statistically significant
(P < 0.05), as indicated by the one-way ANOVA
analysis. In addition, the yields obtained at different
particular feed flow rates (120, 180, 240, 300 mL/h) were
statistically different. The largest drying yield (79.47%)
was achieved at 300 mL/h. Generally, as the feed flow
rate rose from 120 to 300 mL/h, drying yield increased.
Jumah et al. showed that the feed flow rate was faster
at droplet atomization stage, which led to larger droplets.
These droplets contained a high content of water and,
subsequently, resulted in high moisture content in the
powdered product [33]. In addition, a higher feed flow
rate increased drying yield. This could be explained by
the fact that a higher feed flow rate and higher drying
rates could reduce the dehydration time of the powder.
On the other hand, a low moisture powder is usually
mixed with exhaust air, presenting difficulties for
cyclonic separation [35]. These results are similar to
the studies conducted by Suzana F. Alves et al. and
Tomazelli Júnior et al. [36, 37]. Considering the drying
yield results, we chose the feed flow rate of 300 mL/h as
optimal for further experiments.
Fig. 4 demonstrates the SEM photographs shrunk
to microscopic scale of C. javanica instant tea obtained
with 30% (w/w) concentration of maltodextrin at
140°C. The particles had a comparatively regular
shape and no visible breaks or ruptures were observed,
proposing a satisfactory core retention and barrier of the
microcapsules. At low drying temperature, the shape
of the obtained particles was typically spherical with
a shriveled and concave outer surface, indicating that
the low drying temperature clearly provides a better
core ingredient protection [38, 39]. Some particles
demonstrated a smooth and rigid outer surface due
to quick evaporation. Therefore, the optimal drying
temperature for instant tea production from C. Javanica
root extracts using maltodextrin as a drying additive
was 140°C.
We evaluated the saponin content and free radical
scavenging ability of the C. javanica extract and its
powder obtained by spray drying (Table 4). The results
showed that the saponin content in the extract was
higher than that in the powdered tea by 0.29%. The
original extract appeared to exert more scavenging
activity on ABTS free positive radicals with the total
antioxidant value at 168.88 μgAA/g. Meanwhile, after
spray drying, the total antioxidant value decreased, as
expressed by the reduced free radical capture activity.
This implies that saponin in the C. Javanica extract
had the proton accept capacity and could serve as
inhibitor of free radical and, probably, as a primary
antioxidant [1].
CONCLUSION
In the present study, we produced instant tea from
Condopopsis javanica L. root extract via spray drying.
The maximum yield reached 78.35% at the concentration
of maltodextrin used as a drying additive of 30% (w/w),
the drying temperature of 140°C, and the feed rate of
300 mL/h. The resulting instant tea products had a high
total saponin content (0.29%, w/w) and a good free
radical scavenging ability (59.48 μgAA/g). Therefore,
the using of C. javanica root extract to produce instant
tea is beneficial to commercialize the products for
the beverage market. Further studies are required to
evaluate the sensory properties of the powdered product
and examine the economic feasibility of the spray drying
process.
CONTRIBUTION
Nguyen Phu Thuong Nhan and Nguyen Duong Vu
conceived and designed the analysis. Le Van Thanh,
Nguyen Phu Thuong Nhan, and Than Thi Minh Phuong
performed the experiment and collected the data. Long
Giang Bach and Tran Quoc Toan supervised the research
and wrote the paper.
CONFLICTS OF INTERESTS
The authors declare that there is no conflict
of interests regarding the publication of this article.
1. Chen K-N, Peng W-H, Hou C-W, Chen C-Y, Chen H-H, Kuo C-H, et al. Codonopsis javanica root extracts attenuate hyperinsulinemia and lipid peroxidation in fructose-fed insulin resistant rats. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 2013;21(4):347-355. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2013.08.001.
2. Hoi TM, Dai DN, Ha CTT, Anh HV, Ogunwande IA. Essential oil constituents from the leaves of Anoectochilus setaceus, Codonopsis javanica and Aristolochia kwangsiensis from vietnam. Records of Natural Products. 2019;13(3):281-286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25135/rnp.103.18.08.124.
3. Sun Q-L, Li Y-X, Cui Y-S, Jiang S-L, Dong C-X, Du J. Structural characterization of three polysaccharides from the roots of Codonopsis pilosula and their immunomodulatory effects on RAW264.7 macrophages. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2019;130:556-563. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.165.
4. Nguyen X-Q, Le A-D, Nguyen N-P, Nguyen H. Thermal diffusivity, moisture diffusivity, and color change of codonopsis javanica with the support of the ultrasound for drying. Journal of Food Quality. 2019;2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2623404.
5. He J-Y, Ma N, Zhu S, Komatsu K, Li Z-Y, Fu W-M. The genus Codonopsis (Campanulaceae): a review of phytochemistry, bioactivity and quality control. Journal of Natural Medicines. 2015;69(1):1-21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-014-0861-9.
6. Ren J, Lin Z, Yuan Z. Tangshenosides from Codonopsis lanceolata roots. Phytochemistry Letters. 2013;6(4):567-569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytol.2013.07.008.
7. Lim TK. Codonopsis javanica. In: Lim TK, editor. Edible medicinal and non medicinal plants. Volume 9, Modified Stems, Roots, Bulbs. Dordrecht: Springer; 2015. pp. 870-873. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9511-1_32.
8. Li C-Y, Xu H-X, Han Q-B, Wu T-S. Quality assessment of Radix Codonopsis by quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance. Journal of Chromatography A. 2009;1216(11):2124-2129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.10.080.
9. Han AY, Lee YS, Kwon S, Lee HS, Lee K-W, Seol GH. Codonopsis lanceolata extract prevents hypertension in rats. Phytomedicine. 2018;39:119-124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2017.12.028.
10. Wang Q, Xu C, Pan K-Y, Hong D-Y. Which family? - morphological and phylogenetic analyses of the enigmatic genus Numaeacampa (Campanulaceae). Kew Bulletin. 2017;72(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/S12225-017-9701-X.
11. Wang Q, Zhou S-L, Hong D-Y. Molecular phylogeny of the platycodonoid group (Campanulaceae s. str.) with special reference to the circumscription of Codonopsis. Taxon. 2013;62(3):498-504. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12705/623.2.
12. Nguyen VTT, Ho TLD, Phan KTA. In vitro propagation of Codonopsis javania (Blume) Hook. f. et Thomson through the callus induction. Science and Technology Development Journal - Natural Sciences. 2018;2(4):56-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32508/stdjns.v2i4.810.
13. Gao S-M, Liu J-S, Wang M, Cao T-T, Qi Y-D, Zhang B-G, et al. Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Codonopsis: A review. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2018;219:50-70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.02.039.
14. Ijaz S, Haq IU, Babar M. Jukes-cantor evolutionary model based phylogenetic relationship of economically important ornamental palms using maximum likelihood approach. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. 2019;17(6):14859-14865. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1706_1485914865.
15. Park SJ, Seong DH, Park DS, Kim SS, Gou J, Ahn JH, et al. Chemical compositions of fermented Codonopsis lanceolata. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. 2009;38(3):396-400. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3746/jkfn.2009.38.3.396.
16. Sun Y, Liu J. Structural characterization of a water-soluble polysaccharide from the Roots of Codonopsis pilosula and its immunity activity. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2008;43(3):279-282. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2008.06.009.
17. Nguyen MTT, Awale S, Tezuka Y, Le Tran Q, Watanabe H, Kadota S. Xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity of vietnamese medicinal plants. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2004;27(9):1414-1421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1248/bpb.27.1414.
18. Kim S-H, Choi H-J, Chung MJ, Cui C-B, Ham S-S. Antimutagenic and antitumor effects of codonopsis lanceolata extracts. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition. 2009;38(10):1295-1301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3746/jkfn.2009.38.10.1295.
19. Xue J, Zhang X, Zhang C, Kang N, Liu X, Yu J, et al. Protective effect of Naoxintong against cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2016;182:181-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.02.022.
20. Macchioni F, Carugini S, Cecchi F, Siciliano T, Braca A, Cioni P, et al. Aqueous extract of Codonopsis javanica against larval and pupal stages of Aedes albopictus. Annali della Facoltà di Medicina veterinaria. 2004;57:215-220.
21. Wang Z, Qi F, Cui Y, Zhao L, Sun X, Tang W, et al. An update on Chinese herbal medicines as adjuvant treatment of anticancer therapeutics. BioScience Trends. 2018;12(3):220-239. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5582/bst.2018.01144.
22. Cabrera C, Artacho R, Giménez R. Beneficial effects of green tea - A review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2006;25(2):79-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2006.10719518.
23. Zhang Y-H, Chen G-S, Chen J-X, Liu Z-Q, Yu L-Y, Yin J-F, et al. Effects of β-cyclodextrin and sodium ascorbate on the chemical compositions and sensory quality of instant green tea powder during storage. Journal of Chemistry. 2019;2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5618723.
24. Kalušević AM, Lević SM, Čalija BR, Milić JR, Pavlović VB, Bugarski BM, et al. Effects of different carrier materials on physicochemical properties of microencapsulated grape skin extract. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2017;54(11):3411-3420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2790-6.
25. Jafari SM, Ghalenoei MG, Dehnad D. Influence of spray drying on water solubility index, apparent density, and anthocyanin content of pomegranate juice powder. Powder Technology. 2017;311:59-65. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2017.01.070.
26. Pham HNT, Tang Nguyen V, Van Vuong Q, Bowyer MC, Scarlett CJ. Bioactive compound yield and antioxidant capacity of Helicteres hirsuta Lour. stem as affected by various solvents and drying methods. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 2017;41(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.12879.
27. Gupta M, Karmakar N, Sasmal S. In vitro antioxidant activity of aqueous and alcoholic extracts of polyherbal formulation consisting of Ficus glomerata Roxb. and Symplocos racemosa Roxb. stem bark assessed in free radical scavenging assays. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research. 2017;9(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.25258/phyto.v9i2.8060.
28. Fiallos-Jurado J, Pollier J, Moses T, Arendt P, Barriga-Medina N, Morillo E, et al. Saponin determination, expression analysis and functional characterization of saponin biosynthetic genes in Chenopodium quinoa leaves. Plant Science. 2016;250:188-197. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.05.015.
29. Lan Y, Xu M, Ohm J-B, Chen B, Rao J. Solid dispersion-based spray-drying improves solubility and mitigates beany flavour of pea protein isolate. Food Chemistry. 2019;278:665-673. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.11.074.
30. Nunes IL, Mercadante AZ. Encapsulation of lycopene using spray-drying and molecular inclusion processes. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 2007;50(5):893-900. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-89132007000500018.
31. Jafari SM, Assadpoor E, He Y, Bhandari B. Encapsulation efficiency of food flavours and oils during spray drying. Drying Technology. 2008;26(7):816-835. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07373930802135972.
32. Fernandes RVD, Borges SV, Botrel DA. Influence of spray drying operating conditions on microencapsulated rosemary essential oil properties. Food Science and Technology. 2013;33:171-178.
33. Cortés-Camargo S, Cruz-Olivares J, Barragán-Huerta BE, Dublán-García O, Román-Guerrero A, Pérez-Alonso C. Microencapsulation by spray drying of lemon essential oil: Evaluation of mixtures of mesquite gum-nopal mucilage as new wall materials. Journal of Microencapsulation. 2017;34(4):395-407. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02652048.2017.1338772.
34. Jumah RY, Tashtoush B, Shaker RR, Zraiy AF. Manufacturing parameters and quality characteristics of spray dried jameed. Drying Technology. 2000;18(4-5):967-984. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07373930008917747.
35. Dantas D, Pasquali MA, Cavalcanti-Mata M, Duarte ME, Lisboa HM. Influence of spray drying conditions on the properties of avocado powder drink. Food Chemistry. 2018;266:284-291. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.06.016.
36. Alves SF, Borges LL, dos Santos TO, de Paula JR, Conceição EC, Bara MTF. Microencapsulation of essential oil from fruits of Pterodon emarginatus using gum arabic and maltodextrin as wall materials: composition and stability. Drying Technology. 2014;32(1):96-105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2013.816315.
37. Tomazelli Júnior O, Kuhn F, Padilha PJM, Vicente LRM, Costa SW, Boligon AA, et al. Microencapsulation of essential thyme oil by spray drying and its antimicrobial evaluation against Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Brazilian Journal of Biology. 2017;78(2):311-317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.08716.
38. Rubiano KD, Cárdenas JA, Ciro VHJ. Encapsulation of d-limonene flavors using spray drying: Effect of the addition of emulsifiers. Ingeniería y competitividad. 2015;17(2):77-89.
39. Vergara C, Pino MT, Zamora O, Parada J, Pérez R, Uribe M, et al. Microencapsulation of anthocyanin extracted from purple flesh cultivated potatoes by spray drying and its effects on in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Molecules. 2020;25(3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25030722.
